# American Institute of Mathematical Sciences

doi: 10.3934/ipi.2021053
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## PCA reduced Gaussian mixture models with applications in superresolution

 1 TU Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 136, D-10623 Berlin, Germany 2 Univ. Bordeaux, Bordeaux INP, CNRS, IMB, UMR 5251, F-33400 Talence, France 3 Univ. Bordeaux, Bordeaux INP, CNRS, IMS, UMR 5218, F-33400 Talence, France 4 CNRS, Univ. Bordeaux, Bordeaux INP, ICMCB, UMR 5026, F-33600 Pessac, France 5 TU Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 136, D-10623 Berlin, Germany

* Corresponding author: Johannes Hertrich

Received  September 2020 Revised  May 2021 Early access September 2021

Despite the rapid development of computational hardware, the treatment of large and high dimensional data sets is still a challenging problem. The contribution of this paper to the topic is twofold. First, we propose a Gaussian mixture model in conjunction with a reduction of the dimensionality of the data in each component of the model by principal component analysis, which we call PCA-GMM. To learn the (low dimensional) parameters of the mixture model we propose an EM algorithm whose M-step requires the solution of constrained optimization problems. Fortunately, these constrained problems do not depend on the usually large number of samples and can be solved efficiently by an (inertial) proximal alternating linearized minimization algorithm. Second, we apply our PCA-GMM for the superresolution of 2D and 3D material images based on the approach of Sandeep and Jacob. Numerical results confirm the moderate influence of the dimensionality reduction on the overall superresolution result.

Citation: Johannes Hertrich, Dang-Phuong-Lan Nguyen, Jean-Francois Aujol, Dominique Bernard, Yannick Berthoumieu, Abdellatif Saadaldin, Gabriele Steidl. PCA reduced Gaussian mixture models with applications in superresolution. Inverse Problems & Imaging, doi: 10.3934/ipi.2021053
##### References:
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Hero, On EM algorithms and their proximal generalizations, ESAIM Probab. Stat., 12 (2008), 308-326.  doi: 10.1051/ps:2007041.  Google Scholar [7] C. A. Deledalle, J. Salmon and A. Dalalyan, Image denoising with patch based PCA: Local versus global, Proceedings of the British Machine Vision Conference, 25 (2011), 1-25.  doi: 10.5244/C.25.25.  Google Scholar [8] A. P. Dempster, N. M. Laird and D. B. Rubin, Maximum likelihood from incomplete data via the EM algorithm, J. Roy. Statist. Soc. Ser. B (Methodological), 39 (1977), 1-38.  doi: 10.1111/j.2517-6161.1977.tb01600.x.  Google Scholar [9] J. H. Fitschen, K. Losch and G. Steidl, Unsupervised multi class segmentation of 3d images with intensity inhomogeneities, Journal of Visual Communication and Image Representation, 46 (2017), 312-323.  doi: 10.1016/j.jvcir.2017.04.011.  Google Scholar [10] M. Hasannasab, J. Hertrich, F. Laus and G. Steidl, Alternatives to the EM algorithm for ML estimation of location, scatter matrix, and degree of freedom of the student t distribution, Numer. Algorithms, 87 (2021), 77-118.  doi: 10.1007/s11075-020-00959-w.  Google Scholar [11] J. Hertrich and G. Steidl, Inertial stochastic PALM (iSPALM) and applications in machine learning, preprint, 2020, arXiv: 2005.02204. Google Scholar [12] N. J. Higham, Matrix nearness problems and applications, In Applications of Matrix Theory (Bradford, 1988), Inst. Math. Appl. Conf. Ser. New Ser., 22, Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1989, 1-27. doi: 10.1093/imamat/22.1.1.  Google Scholar [13] N. J. Higham and R. S. Schreiber, Fast polar decomposition of an arbitrary matrix, SIAM J. Sci. Statist. Comput., 11 (1990), 648-655.  doi: 10.1137/0911038.  Google Scholar [14] A. Houdard, C. Bouveyron and J. Delon, High-dimensional mixture models for unsupervised image denoising (HDMI), SIAM J. Imaging Sci., 11 (2018), 2815-2846.  doi: 10.1137/17M1135694.  Google Scholar [15] T. Klatzer, D. Soukup, E. Kobler, K. Hammernik and T. Pock, Trainable regularization for multi-frame superresolution, Pattern Recognition, Lecture Notes in Comput. Sci., 10496 Springer, Cham., 2017, 90-100. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-66709-6.  Google Scholar [16] F. Laus, Statistical Analysis and Optimal Transport for Euclidean and Manifold-Valued Data, Ph.D Thesis, TU Kaiserslautern, 2019. Google Scholar [17] E. Lehmann and H. Scheffé, Completeness, similar regions, and unbiased estimation: Part I, Sankhyā, 10 (1950), 305-340. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4614-1412-4_23.  Google Scholar [18] S. Łojasiewicz, Une propriété topologique des sous-ensembles analytiques réels, In Les Équations aux Dérivées Partielles (Paris, 1962), Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, 1963, 87-89.  Google Scholar [19] S. Łojasiewicz, Sur la géométrie semi- et sous-analytique, Ann. Inst. Fourier (Grenoble), 43 (1993), 1575-1595.  doi: 10.5802/aif.1384.  Google Scholar [20] G. J. McLachlan, D. Peel and R. Bean, Modelling high-dimensional data by mixtures of factor analyzers, Comput. Statist. Data Anal., 41 (2003), 379-388.  doi: 10.1016/S0167-9473(02)00183-4.  Google Scholar [21] X.-L. Meng and D. Van Dyk, The EM algorithm - an old folk-song sung to a fast new tune, J. Roy. Statist. Soc. Ser. B, 59 (1997), 511-567.  doi: 10.1111/1467-9868.00082.  Google Scholar [22] S. Neumayer, M. Nimmer, S. Setzer and G. Steidl, On the rotational invariant $l_1$-norm PCA, Linear Algebra Appl., 587 (2020), 243-270.  doi: 10.1016/j.laa.2019.10.030.  Google Scholar [23] S. Parameswaran, C. Deledalle, L. Denis and T. Q. Nguyen, Accelerating GMM-based patch priors for image restoration: Three ingredients for a 100x speed-up, IEEE Trans. Process., 28 (2019), 687-698.  doi: 10.1109/TIP.2018.2866691.  Google Scholar [24] K. Pearson, On lines and planes of closest fit to systems of points in space, Philosophical Magazine, 2 (1901), 559-572.  doi: 10.1080/14786440109462720.  Google Scholar [25] T. Pock and S. Sabach, Inertial proximal alternating linearized minimization (iPALM) for nonconvex and nonsmooth problems, SIAM J. Imaging Sci., 9 (2016), 1756-1787.  doi: 10.1137/16M1064064.  Google Scholar [26] P. Sandeep and T. Jacob, Single image super-resolution using a joint GMM method, IEEE Trans. Image Process., 25 (2016), 4233-4244.   Google Scholar [27] C. Sutour, C.-A. Deledalle and J.-F. Aujol, Estimation of the noise level function based on a nonparametric detection of homogeneous image regions, SIAM J. Imaging Sci., 8 (2015), 2622-2661.  doi: 10.1137/15M1012682.  Google Scholar [28] M. E. Tipping and C. M. Bishop, Mixtures of probabilistic principal component analyzers, Neural Computation, 11 (1999), 443-482.  doi: 10.1162/089976699300016728.  Google Scholar [29] S. Vaucher, P. Unifantowicz, C. Ricard, L. Dubois, M. Kuball, J.-M. Catala-Civera, D. Bernard, M. Stampanoni and R. Nicula, On-line tools for microscopic and macroscopic monitoring of microwave processing, Physica B: Condensed Matter, 398 (2007), 191-195.   Google Scholar [30] M. Xiao, S. Zheng, C. Liu, Y. Wang, D. He, G. Ke, J. Bian, Z. Lin and T.-Y. Liu, Invertible image rescaling, preprint, 2020, arXiv: 2005.05650. Google Scholar [31] J.-H. Zhao and L. Philip, Fast ML estimation for the mixture of factor analyzers via an ECM algorithm, IEEE Trans. Neural Networks, 19 (2008), 1956-1961.   Google Scholar [32] D. Zoran and Y. Weiss, From learning models of natural image patches to whole image restoration, In 2011 International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV), IEEE, 2011,479-486. doi: 10.1109/ICCV.2011.6126278.  Google Scholar

show all references

##### References:
 [1] H. Attouch and J. Bolte, On the convergence of the proximal algorithm for nonsmooth functions involving analytic features, Math. Program., 116 (2009), 5-16.  doi: 10.1007/s10107-007-0133-5.  Google Scholar [2] J. Bolte, S. Sabach and M. Teboulle, Proximal alternating linearized minimization for nonconvex and nonsmooth problems, Math. Program., 146 (2014), 459-494.  doi: 10.1007/s10107-013-0701-9.  Google Scholar [3] C. Bouveyron, S. Girard and C. Schmid, High-dimensional data clustering, Comput. Statist. Data Anal., 52 (2007), 502-519.  doi: 10.1016/j.csda.2007.02.009.  Google Scholar [4] C. L. Byrne, The EM Algorithm: Theory, Applications and Related Methods, Lecture Notes, University of Massachusetts, 2017. Google Scholar [5] S. Chrétien and A. O. Hero, Kullback proximal algorithms for maximum-likelihood estimation, IEEE Trans. Inform. Theory, 46 (2000), 1800-1810.  doi: 10.1109/18.857792.  Google Scholar [6] S. Chrétien and A. O. Hero, On EM algorithms and their proximal generalizations, ESAIM Probab. Stat., 12 (2008), 308-326.  doi: 10.1051/ps:2007041.  Google Scholar [7] C. A. Deledalle, J. Salmon and A. Dalalyan, Image denoising with patch based PCA: Local versus global, Proceedings of the British Machine Vision Conference, 25 (2011), 1-25.  doi: 10.5244/C.25.25.  Google Scholar [8] A. P. Dempster, N. M. Laird and D. B. Rubin, Maximum likelihood from incomplete data via the EM algorithm, J. Roy. Statist. Soc. Ser. B (Methodological), 39 (1977), 1-38.  doi: 10.1111/j.2517-6161.1977.tb01600.x.  Google Scholar [9] J. H. Fitschen, K. Losch and G. Steidl, Unsupervised multi class segmentation of 3d images with intensity inhomogeneities, Journal of Visual Communication and Image Representation, 46 (2017), 312-323.  doi: 10.1016/j.jvcir.2017.04.011.  Google Scholar [10] M. Hasannasab, J. Hertrich, F. Laus and G. Steidl, Alternatives to the EM algorithm for ML estimation of location, scatter matrix, and degree of freedom of the student t distribution, Numer. Algorithms, 87 (2021), 77-118.  doi: 10.1007/s11075-020-00959-w.  Google Scholar [11] J. Hertrich and G. Steidl, Inertial stochastic PALM (iSPALM) and applications in machine learning, preprint, 2020, arXiv: 2005.02204. Google Scholar [12] N. J. Higham, Matrix nearness problems and applications, In Applications of Matrix Theory (Bradford, 1988), Inst. Math. Appl. Conf. Ser. New Ser., 22, Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1989, 1-27. doi: 10.1093/imamat/22.1.1.  Google Scholar [13] N. J. Higham and R. S. Schreiber, Fast polar decomposition of an arbitrary matrix, SIAM J. Sci. Statist. Comput., 11 (1990), 648-655.  doi: 10.1137/0911038.  Google Scholar [14] A. Houdard, C. Bouveyron and J. Delon, High-dimensional mixture models for unsupervised image denoising (HDMI), SIAM J. Imaging Sci., 11 (2018), 2815-2846.  doi: 10.1137/17M1135694.  Google Scholar [15] T. Klatzer, D. Soukup, E. Kobler, K. Hammernik and T. Pock, Trainable regularization for multi-frame superresolution, Pattern Recognition, Lecture Notes in Comput. Sci., 10496 Springer, Cham., 2017, 90-100. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-66709-6.  Google Scholar [16] F. Laus, Statistical Analysis and Optimal Transport for Euclidean and Manifold-Valued Data, Ph.D Thesis, TU Kaiserslautern, 2019. Google Scholar [17] E. Lehmann and H. Scheffé, Completeness, similar regions, and unbiased estimation: Part I, Sankhyā, 10 (1950), 305-340. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4614-1412-4_23.  Google Scholar [18] S. Łojasiewicz, Une propriété topologique des sous-ensembles analytiques réels, In Les Équations aux Dérivées Partielles (Paris, 1962), Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, 1963, 87-89.  Google Scholar [19] S. Łojasiewicz, Sur la géométrie semi- et sous-analytique, Ann. Inst. Fourier (Grenoble), 43 (1993), 1575-1595.  doi: 10.5802/aif.1384.  Google Scholar [20] G. J. McLachlan, D. Peel and R. Bean, Modelling high-dimensional data by mixtures of factor analyzers, Comput. Statist. Data Anal., 41 (2003), 379-388.  doi: 10.1016/S0167-9473(02)00183-4.  Google Scholar [21] X.-L. Meng and D. Van Dyk, The EM algorithm - an old folk-song sung to a fast new tune, J. Roy. Statist. Soc. Ser. B, 59 (1997), 511-567.  doi: 10.1111/1467-9868.00082.  Google Scholar [22] S. Neumayer, M. Nimmer, S. Setzer and G. Steidl, On the rotational invariant $l_1$-norm PCA, Linear Algebra Appl., 587 (2020), 243-270.  doi: 10.1016/j.laa.2019.10.030.  Google Scholar [23] S. Parameswaran, C. Deledalle, L. Denis and T. Q. Nguyen, Accelerating GMM-based patch priors for image restoration: Three ingredients for a 100x speed-up, IEEE Trans. Process., 28 (2019), 687-698.  doi: 10.1109/TIP.2018.2866691.  Google Scholar [24] K. Pearson, On lines and planes of closest fit to systems of points in space, Philosophical Magazine, 2 (1901), 559-572.  doi: 10.1080/14786440109462720.  Google Scholar [25] T. Pock and S. Sabach, Inertial proximal alternating linearized minimization (iPALM) for nonconvex and nonsmooth problems, SIAM J. Imaging Sci., 9 (2016), 1756-1787.  doi: 10.1137/16M1064064.  Google Scholar [26] P. Sandeep and T. Jacob, Single image super-resolution using a joint GMM method, IEEE Trans. Image Process., 25 (2016), 4233-4244.   Google Scholar [27] C. Sutour, C.-A. Deledalle and J.-F. Aujol, Estimation of the noise level function based on a nonparametric detection of homogeneous image regions, SIAM J. Imaging Sci., 8 (2015), 2622-2661.  doi: 10.1137/15M1012682.  Google Scholar [28] M. E. Tipping and C. M. Bishop, Mixtures of probabilistic principal component analyzers, Neural Computation, 11 (1999), 443-482.  doi: 10.1162/089976699300016728.  Google Scholar [29] S. Vaucher, P. Unifantowicz, C. Ricard, L. Dubois, M. Kuball, J.-M. Catala-Civera, D. Bernard, M. Stampanoni and R. Nicula, On-line tools for microscopic and macroscopic monitoring of microwave processing, Physica B: Condensed Matter, 398 (2007), 191-195.   Google Scholar [30] M. Xiao, S. Zheng, C. Liu, Y. Wang, D. He, G. Ke, J. Bian, Z. Lin and T.-Y. Liu, Invertible image rescaling, preprint, 2020, arXiv: 2005.05650. Google Scholar [31] J.-H. Zhao and L. Philip, Fast ML estimation for the mixture of factor analyzers via an ECM algorithm, IEEE Trans. Neural Networks, 19 (2008), 1956-1961.   Google Scholar [32] D. Zoran and Y. Weiss, From learning models of natural image patches to whole image restoration, In 2011 International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV), IEEE, 2011,479-486. doi: 10.1109/ICCV.2011.6126278.  Google Scholar
Top: Images for estimating the mixture models. Bottom: Ground truth for reconstruction. First column: Material "FS", second column: Material "SiC Diamonds", third column: $\texttt{goldhill}$ image
Reconstructions of 2D low resolution images. First row: ground truth, second row: low resolution, third row: reconstruction with GMM, fourth row: reconstruction with PCA-GMM and $d = 20$, fifth row: reconstruction with PCA-GMM and $d = 12$. The larger of $d$, the closer is the result of PCA-GMM to GMM
Histograms of the eigenvalues of $\Sigma_k$, $k = 1, ..., K$ for the PCA-GMM with fixed $\sigma = 0.02$ for $d = 20$
PSNRs of the reconstructions of artificially downsampled 2D images using either bicubic interpolation, a GMM, PCA-GMM for different choices of $d$ or HDDC. The magnification factor is set to $q\in\{2, 4\}$. PCA-GMM produces results almost as good as GMM, with a much lower dimensionality
 Magnification factor $q=2$ Magnification factor $q=4$ $d$ FS Diamonds Goldhill FS Diamonds Goldhill bicubic - $30.57$ $30.67$ $28.99$ $25.27$ $25.19$ $24.66$ GMM - $35.49$ $37.21$ $31.63$ $30.69$ $30.74$ $27.80$ PCA-GMM, $\sigma=0.02$ $20$ $35.44$ $37.24$ $31.25$ $30.75$ $30.74$ $27.64$ $16$ $35.42$ $37.22$ $31.25$ $30.74$ $30.62$ $27.59$ $12$ $35.47$ $37.13$ $31.18$ $30.67$ $30.48$ $27.55$ $8$ $35.32$ $36.69$ $31.00$ $30.46$ $30.16$ $27.38$ $4$ $34.69$ $35.23$ $30.42$ $29.78$ $29.24$ $26.89$ PCA-GMM, learned $\sigma$ $20$ $35.22$ $37.06$ $31.27$ $30.43$ $30.51$ $27.66$ $16$ $35.14$ $37.01$ $31.14$ $30.34$ $30.31$ $27.51$ $12$ $34.95$ $36.54$ $30.94$ $30.13$ $29.84$ $27.33$ $8$ $34.43$ $35.47$ $30.54$ $29.62$ $29.08$ $26.88$ $4$ $32.74$ $33.41$ $29.69$ $28.51$ $27.75$ $26.16$ HDDC [3] $20$ $35.35$ $37.12$ $31.35$ $30.54$ $30.63$ $27.73$ $16$ $35.31$ $37.10$ $31.25$ $30.47$ $30.48$ $27.62$ $12$ $35.24$ $36.64$ $31.08$ $30.27$ $30.08$ $27.40$ $8$ $34.76$ $35.66$ $30.76$ $29.80$ $29.34$ $27.00$ $4$ $33.46$ $33.86$ $29.93$ $28.61$ $27.99$ $26.37$
 Magnification factor $q=2$ Magnification factor $q=4$ $d$ FS Diamonds Goldhill FS Diamonds Goldhill bicubic - $30.57$ $30.67$ $28.99$ $25.27$ $25.19$ $24.66$ GMM - $35.49$ $37.21$ $31.63$ $30.69$ $30.74$ $27.80$ PCA-GMM, $\sigma=0.02$ $20$ $35.44$ $37.24$ $31.25$ $30.75$ $30.74$ $27.64$ $16$ $35.42$ $37.22$ $31.25$ $30.74$ $30.62$ $27.59$ $12$ $35.47$ $37.13$ $31.18$ $30.67$ $30.48$ $27.55$ $8$ $35.32$ $36.69$ $31.00$ $30.46$ $30.16$ $27.38$ $4$ $34.69$ $35.23$ $30.42$ $29.78$ $29.24$ $26.89$ PCA-GMM, learned $\sigma$ $20$ $35.22$ $37.06$ $31.27$ $30.43$ $30.51$ $27.66$ $16$ $35.14$ $37.01$ $31.14$ $30.34$ $30.31$ $27.51$ $12$ $34.95$ $36.54$ $30.94$ $30.13$ $29.84$ $27.33$ $8$ $34.43$ $35.47$ $30.54$ $29.62$ $29.08$ $26.88$ $4$ $32.74$ $33.41$ $29.69$ $28.51$ $27.75$ $26.16$ HDDC [3] $20$ $35.35$ $37.12$ $31.35$ $30.54$ $30.63$ $27.73$ $16$ $35.31$ $37.10$ $31.25$ $30.47$ $30.48$ $27.62$ $12$ $35.24$ $36.64$ $31.08$ $30.27$ $30.08$ $27.40$ $8$ $34.76$ $35.66$ $30.76$ $29.80$ $29.34$ $27.00$ $4$ $33.46$ $33.86$ $29.93$ $28.61$ $27.99$ $26.37$
Average execution time (in seconds) for the E-step and M-step in the EM algorithm for estimating the parameters of the mixture models
 Magnification factor $q=2$, i.e. dimension $n=80$ FS, $N=405769$ Diamonds, $N=405769$ Goldhill, $N=15625$ $d$ E-step M-step E-step M-step E-step M-step GMM - $10.91$ $0.06$ $10.91$ $0.06$ $0.44$ $0.06$ PCA-GMM, $\sigma=0.02$ $20$ $7.25$ $0.74$ $7.42$ $0.57$ $0.28$ $0.54$ $12$ $6.58$ $0.59$ $6.53$ $0.51$ $0.25$ $0.46$ $4$ $6.18$ $0.56$ $6.17$ $0.52$ $0.24$ $0.48$ PCA-GMM, learned $\sigma$ $20$ $7.28$ $0.54$ $7.41$ $0.54$ $0.28$ $0.54$ $12$ $6.59$ $0.47$ $6.53$ $0.45$ $0.25$ $0.47$ $4$ $6.20$ $0.47$ $6.17$ $0.44$ $0.24$ $0.51$ HDDC[3] $20$ $7.27$ $0.27$ $7.44$ $0.27$ $0.28$ $0.26$ $12$ $6.64$ $0.26$ $6.64$ $0.26$ $0.25$ $0.26$ $4$ $6.27$ $0.27$ $6.23$ $0.26$ $0.24$ $0.26$ Magnification factor $q=4$, i.e. dimension $n=272$ FS, $N=100489$ Diamonds, $N=100489$ Goldhill, $N=3721$ $d$ E-step M-step E-step M-step E-step M-step GMM - $17.15$ $0.06$ $17.11$ $0.06$ $0.90$ $0.06$ PCA-GMM, $\sigma=0.02$ $20$ $8.65$ $3.54$ $8.68$ $2.03$ $0.44$ $1.83$ $12$ $8.17$ $2.73$ $8.15$ $1.99$ $0.42$ $1.75$ $4$ $7.95$ $2.10$ $7.94$ $2.49$ $0.41$ $1.91$ PCA-GMM, learned $\sigma$ $20$ $8.65$ $1.92$ $8.70$ $1.83$ $0.44$ $1.87$ $12$ $8.17$ $1.99$ $8.17$ $1.74$ $0.42$ $1.74$ $4$ $7.94$ $2.17$ $7.93$ $1.76$ $0.41$ $1.72$ HDDC [3] $20$ $8.65$ $1.53$ $8.71$ $1.54$ $0.44$ $1.52$ $12$ $8.16$ $1.54$ $8.14$ $1.53$ $0.42$ $1.52$ $4$ $7.95$ $1.54$ $7.96$ $1.54$ $0.41$ $1.52$
 Magnification factor $q=2$, i.e. dimension $n=80$ FS, $N=405769$ Diamonds, $N=405769$ Goldhill, $N=15625$ $d$ E-step M-step E-step M-step E-step M-step GMM - $10.91$ $0.06$ $10.91$ $0.06$ $0.44$ $0.06$ PCA-GMM, $\sigma=0.02$ $20$ $7.25$ $0.74$ $7.42$ $0.57$ $0.28$ $0.54$ $12$ $6.58$ $0.59$ $6.53$ $0.51$ $0.25$ $0.46$ $4$ $6.18$ $0.56$ $6.17$ $0.52$ $0.24$ $0.48$ PCA-GMM, learned $\sigma$ $20$ $7.28$ $0.54$ $7.41$ $0.54$ $0.28$ $0.54$ $12$ $6.59$ $0.47$ $6.53$ $0.45$ $0.25$ $0.47$ $4$ $6.20$ $0.47$ $6.17$ $0.44$ $0.24$ $0.51$ HDDC[3] $20$ $7.27$ $0.27$ $7.44$ $0.27$ $0.28$ $0.26$ $12$ $6.64$ $0.26$ $6.64$ $0.26$ $0.25$ $0.26$ $4$ $6.27$ $0.27$ $6.23$ $0.26$ $0.24$ $0.26$ Magnification factor $q=4$, i.e. dimension $n=272$ FS, $N=100489$ Diamonds, $N=100489$ Goldhill, $N=3721$ $d$ E-step M-step E-step M-step E-step M-step GMM - $17.15$ $0.06$ $17.11$ $0.06$ $0.90$ $0.06$ PCA-GMM, $\sigma=0.02$ $20$ $8.65$ $3.54$ $8.68$ $2.03$ $0.44$ $1.83$ $12$ $8.17$ $2.73$ $8.15$ $1.99$ $0.42$ $1.75$ $4$ $7.95$ $2.10$ $7.94$ $2.49$ $0.41$ $1.91$ PCA-GMM, learned $\sigma$ $20$ $8.65$ $1.92$ $8.70$ $1.83$ $0.44$ $1.87$ $12$ $8.17$ $1.99$ $8.17$ $1.74$ $0.42$ $1.74$ $4$ $7.94$ $2.17$ $7.93$ $1.76$ $0.41$ $1.72$ HDDC [3] $20$ $8.65$ $1.53$ $8.71$ $1.54$ $0.44$ $1.52$ $12$ $8.16$ $1.54$ $8.14$ $1.53$ $0.42$ $1.52$ $4$ $7.95$ $1.54$ $7.96$ $1.54$ $0.41$ $1.52$
PSNRs of the reconstructions of artificially downsampled 3D images using either nearest neighbor interpolation, GMM or PCA-GMM for different choices of $d$. The magnification factor is set to $q = 2$. As in the 2D case, PCA-GMM with small $d$ produces results almost as good as GMM, but with a much lower dimensionality
 $d$ FS Diamonds Nearest neighbor - $30.10$ $26.25$ GMM - $33.32$ $30.71$ PCA-GMM, $\sigma=0.02$ $60$ $33.38$ $30.83$ $40$ $33.36$ $30.75$ $20$ $33.25$ $30.17$ HDDC [3] $60$ $33.23$ $30.49$ $40$ $33.24$ $30.29$ $20$ $33.02$ $29.47$
 $d$ FS Diamonds Nearest neighbor - $30.10$ $26.25$ GMM - $33.32$ $30.71$ PCA-GMM, $\sigma=0.02$ $60$ $33.38$ $30.83$ $40$ $33.36$ $30.75$ $20$ $33.25$ $30.17$ HDDC [3] $60$ $33.23$ $30.49$ $40$ $33.24$ $30.29$ $20$ $33.02$ $29.47$
Average execution time (in seconds) of the E-step and M-step in the EM algorithm for estimating the parameters of the mixture models
 FS Diamonds $d$ E-step M-step E-step M-step GMM - $717.91$ $\phantom{0}0.07$ $718.13$ $\phantom{0}0.07$ PCA-GMM, $\sigma=0.02$ $60$ $338.22$ $12.29$ $337.44$ $17.49$ $40$ $327.34$ $\phantom{0}9.73$ $324.93$ $13.87$ $20$ $320.00$ $\phantom{0}7.85$ $319.46$ $\phantom{0}9.80$ HDDC [3] $60$ $337.29$ $\phantom{0}4.15$ $337.42$ $\phantom{0}4.16$ $40$ $327.11$ $\phantom{0}4.19$ $324.95$ $\phantom{0}4.15$ $20$ $320.03$ $\phantom{0}4.20$ $319.07$ $\phantom{0}4.15$
 FS Diamonds $d$ E-step M-step E-step M-step GMM - $717.91$ $\phantom{0}0.07$ $718.13$ $\phantom{0}0.07$ PCA-GMM, $\sigma=0.02$ $60$ $338.22$ $12.29$ $337.44$ $17.49$ $40$ $327.34$ $\phantom{0}9.73$ $324.93$ $13.87$ $20$ $320.00$ $\phantom{0}7.85$ $319.46$ $\phantom{0}9.80$ HDDC [3] $60$ $337.29$ $\phantom{0}4.15$ $337.42$ $\phantom{0}4.16$ $40$ $327.11$ $\phantom{0}4.19$ $324.95$ $\phantom{0}4.15$ $20$ $320.03$ $\phantom{0}4.20$ $319.07$ $\phantom{0}4.15$
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